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Introduction. Information and psychological struggle between the parties to the conflict

The military-political situation in the world remains complex and contradictory. International relations are in a state of crisis due to the confrontation between the United States and its allies with the Russian Federation. In addition to influencing Russia using “soft power” methods, NATO countries for the first time in a long time began to consider the possibility of direct military confrontation with our country. The situation in the Middle East and other crisis areas is worsening. The terrorist activity of Islamist radical groups has sharply increased, and they have recently carried out a number of subversive actions in various countries with a large number of victims.

There is an increase in information confrontation between various countries, blocs and political forces. News agencies, radio, television, the press, Internet resources, including rapidly developing social networks, video hosting sites, and blogs disseminate a huge amount of information on various aspects of international life and the situation in individual countries. The leading states of the world are trying to achieve dominance in the global information space, as the information factor is turning into a geopolitical phenomenon.

With the help of biasedly selected and specially fabricated information, it is possible to aggravate the situation, force the leadership of certain countries to make incorrect political or military-strategic decisions, destabilize the situation in individual countries, contribute to the elimination of unwanted regimes or the reformatting of power structures there. This is achieved through targeted information and psychological influence on the consciousness and emotional-volitional sphere of state leaders, the political, financial, economic, military elite and the entire population.

Information warfare and gaining superiority over an opponent in it play an important role in ensuring the national security of the state, achieving the required goals in the event of a conflict, without resorting to the use of military means.

In previous historical periods, information was mainly disseminated through the media - print media, radio and television. This influenced the volume and speed of its distribution, as well as the possibility of manipulating readers (listeners, viewers). So, if nothing was reported about an event, then it was as if it had not happened at all. The task of limiting or prohibiting the spread of unwanted information was relatively easily solved by closing newspapers, banning the use of radios (in wartime they were taken away from almost everyone), technical jamming of “enemy radio,” and turning off unwanted TV channels.

At the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries, the situation in this area changed dramatically. The use of electrical and computer technical means has made it possible to create a new communication environment, increasing the availability and efficiency of obtaining information thousands of times. On this basis, the Internet was created, which is a worldwide system of interconnected computer networks for storing, processing and transmitting information. Then the cybernetic space appeared, connecting residents of many countries who gained access to a variety of information and information resources through the technical capabilities of the Internet.

Cybernetic space is a new human and at the same time technical environment. Cybernetic space has no boundaries and covers practically the entire globe, allowing individuals, public and government structures to almost instantly connect with each other, receive any information and express their opinions. Formally, this is a decentralized space that no state or organization owns or controls. It is filled with a huge amount of information on a wide variety of areas of knowledge, which can be obtained by users in different countries of the world, the number of which reaches 3.2 billion.

Currently, many states realize that, along with an educational and entertainment resource, cyberspace makes it possible to manipulate people. It turned out to be possible to influence the political views and ideas of people, much more effectively than using traditional media and propaganda means. Therefore, cyberspace began to be actively used in information warfare.

For these purposes, as the analysis showed, the following capabilities of the cyberspace are used: news resources, social networks, blog platforms, video hosting and instant messengers.

News resources are represented by: online editions of leading newspapers and magazines (more than 30 thousand); news portals (specified only on operational news releases, more than 1000 in different countries of the world); information and analytical resources (military-political, military, military-technical analytics, more than 800 in major languages); propaganda portals (posted materials are directed against individual countries and groups to destabilize them); extremist sites (distribute materials calling for violence and subversive activities).

Each of these resources has its own traditional users who regularly get acquainted with their materials. Recently, there has been an increased use of Internet sources to obtain “fresh” information on political and socio-political issues compared to traditional media sources. This is due to the growing number of owners of mobile devices connected to the Internet. The latest mobile phones allow you to receive any news in real time.

Social networks were originally created to renew lost personal connections, congratulate your friends, and express your opinion on certain issues.

But after a significant increase in the number of users (Facebook 960 million, Twitter 300 million), they began to contain information about events in the world, as well as materials of an obviously biased and propaganda nature

Blog platforms are information sites consisting of individual entries (blog posts), video and photographic materials maintained by individual authors or organizations. They are, as a rule, devoted to the description of some events in (political) life and the author’s thoughts on this topic. Currently, bloggers have appeared with a bright individual but also original opinion, and a large number of users have become familiar with their materials. In various countries around the world, the number of such bloggers has increased significantly; they read and comment on each other, and hold discussions on various issues. Their community became known as the blogosphere.

The blogosphere has become a kind of platform for public discussions, finding out public opinion on the issues raised for discussion. At the same time, bloggers are not responsible for the accuracy of the information they post online. It is impossible to control this, and the consequences can be quite negative, as shown by the events of the so-called “Arab Spring,” which was initiated, among other things, by extremist bloggers.

Blogging platforms can be in the form of individual blogs (text diary of the author), live journals (online diaries), as well as other developments (WordPress, Live Internet). These blog platforms are increasing their popularity, including when discussing political, military-political and military-technical problems.

Video hosting allows the user to upload, store and display video materials prepared by him on the network. Their audience numbers more than 1 billion people in different countries of the world. Over 80 thousand hours of video files are uploaded to them every day. All files are placed on relevant topics. The emotional impact of a “living picture” is much higher than that of ordinary text material. Therefore, video hosting sites, especially YouTube, which occupies a leading position, are actively used in propaganda activities.

Messengers are instant messaging systems on the Internet, including voice and video. This direction has been actively developing recently and has begun to be used by Islamists and terrorist groups.

Currently, we can distinguish the following three main areas of information warfare in the world, on which the activities of foreign policy and information and propaganda bodies are concentrated, and the resources and capabilities of the cyberspace are used to the maximum:

West - Russia;
Terrorist groups - the world community;
Between individual countries;

In the first direction, the main organizing force is the United States, which determines the main directions of anti-Russian information and propaganda activities. These include, in particular:

discrediting the Russian Federation;
discrediting the leadership and personally President V.V. Putin;
discrediting Russian media.

Our country is being discredited in two directions: in the global information space and in the information space of the Russian Federation itself. The main goal of anti-Russian actions is to present our country as the “main enemy” of the free world, which constantly “endangers the world order,” “rattles nuclear weapons,” provokes problems in Europe and the Middle East, and “sponsors terrorism.” Such materials are circulated by the world media and commented on by Western analysts and propagandists.

Another area of attack on Russia is its actions in Syria, allegedly directed against “moderate opposition and civilians.” This fabricated information is accompanied by “convincing evidence” in the form of photographs, videos of “tragedy sites,” “eyewitness accounts,” etc.

For the domestic Russian audience, additional materials are being prepared about the “imminent death of Russia,” its “wretchedness and shamefulness,” the need for “a change in the ruling regime by liberal forces,” and attempts are being made to arouse protest sentiments among the population. All these materials are actively distributed on the RuNet, where Russian users can get acquainted with translations, biased articles from world media, Russian-language news portals Voice of America, BBC, Deutsche Welle, anti-Russian materials from Radio Liberty, etc.

It should be noted that a significant part of the population of Western countries, under the influence of propaganda materials, believes in the “Russian threat”; in some places they even expect an “invasion” of the Russian army in the near future or a sudden attack on them with the use of nuclear weapons. At the same time, Russian citizens generally reject Western propaganda and support the actions of the country's leadership to defend national interests and pursue an independent foreign policy.

The greatest rejection in the West is caused by the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin as a strong leader who does not give in to pressure from abroad and is clearly superior in his personal qualities to all representatives of the Western political elite. He is subject to powerful propaganda attacks, often slanderous in nature. He is called “a gangster running a gangster state”, “the main show in Moscow”, “a political nonentity”, etc. Many of the attacks are personal and clearly exceed the bounds of diplomatic and political correctness. The Internet space is filled with similar materials, accompanied by offensive caricatures and collages, distributed on various portals.

Western propagandists are looking for new techniques to damage the reputation of the Russian leader. The Center for Analysis of European Policy, operating in the United States, proposed preparing and launching a comedy show on YouTube ridiculing the Russian President and his policies. American experts came to the conclusion that supposedly “Putin is afraid of ridicule more than criticism” and “Russian wit” should be used against him, which should lead to the desired result.

It should be noted that not only the US NATO allies, but also a number of countries from the post-Soviet space actively participate in anti-Russian propaganda activities. In particular, a number of Internet sites that are extremely hostile to Russia have been created in Ukraine, for example, “peacemaker” and “InformNapalm”, where Russophobic materials and inflammatory information are posted.

Of great concern in the West is the so-called “false propaganda of the Kremlin,” which has “enveloped” the media space of many countries around the world and has “fatal consequences” for the Western community. A campaign is being waged against the Russian media groups “Russia Today” and “Sputnik” using Internet resources to “expose” their dishonest work, “distorting facts” and other “dirty methods”. In November, the EU began publishing a weekly publication, “Disinformation Review,” which, as announced in Brussels, reveals the scale of “Russian propaganda in countries around the world,” which creates an “erroneous view” of current events.

Western countries and their allies make maximum use of the capabilities of the Internet and cyberspace to conduct anti-Russian activities. New bodies and organizations are being created that are introducing propaganda materials into the most popular Internet platforms - Facebook, Twitter, VKontakte, influencing the blogosphere, using video hosting and instant messengers to attack Russia and its leadership.

Another area of information warfare is the propaganda activities of the Islamic State and other Islamist terrorist groups and the active counteraction to it by the world community. Islamic extremists skillfully carry out propaganda using extensive Internet resources, while they praise the “Islamic Caliphate” created by ISIS in Iraq and Syria, attract militants from abroad to their side, and also intimidate their opponents.

Every month, Islamic State propagandists distribute 100 different materials via the Internet: news reports, text reviews, online publication of brochures and magazines, theological treatises, collections of photographs, videos, individual messages on social networks, etc.

All propaganda materials are prepared with high quality, and contain information about a “happy life” in territories under the control of the Islamic State, about successful military operations and subversive actions against “infidels,” about examples of mercy and an “atmosphere of camaraderie” in the ranks of militants. The necessity of sacrifice and carrying out suicidal terrorist acts, as well as super-cruelty towards the “enemies of the faithful” is substantiated. According to Western analysts, hundreds of thousands of people in different countries of the world become familiar with these materials, some of whom join their “brothers in faith” and their armed struggle for the “Islamic Caliphate.”

Western countries are trying to counter the propaganda activities of IS. In the United States, in particular, the Center for Strategic Anti-Terrorism Communications was created for these purposes. However, it has not yet been possible to reduce the effectiveness of IS propaganda. Counter-propaganda materials (photos of killed militants, condemnation of suicide terrorist attacks as not in accordance with Islamic norms, etc.) are not popular. Therefore, the US State Department curtailed its online propaganda campaign against the Islamic State. The main focus began to be on blocking the Internet resources of the Islamic State, but its specialists began to quickly move to other platforms in cyberspace. This allows a number of foreign analysts to talk about the defeat of the West in the information confrontation by the forces of terrorism and extremism.

Information confrontation is also observed between individual countries that are geopolitical rivals. The United States has been criticizing China for a long time for violating human rights and “excessively strengthening its military power.” Lately, Washington has been accusing Beijing of provoking military tension in the South China Sea. The PRC, in turn, accused the United States of hegemonism, the desire to establish control over sea communications, and threatened to take military measures. The information confrontation between these two countries will intensify.

In another direction, it can be noted that the United States and Great Britain used Internet resources against Germany, which is their NATO ally. A number of experts found that during the refugee crisis in Europe, migrants to Germany were actually lured by microblogs posted on Twitter, where it was noted that this country is distinguished by increased hospitality, the Germans are “very humane” and Germany has the economic opportunities to provide people arriving from Middle East and North Africa, high standards of accommodation. It turned out that most of these messages were received on the mobile phones and tablets of refugees from the UK and the USA. It can be assumed that Germany’s “close allies” hope to undermine its economy and internal political stability.

Thus, the information confrontation in the world continues, and its scale is expanding. The tension in the world will not decrease in the medium and long term. Therefore, information warfare will continue, but it will primarily be waged in cyberspace.

New IT technologies will make it possible to service a large number of mobile devices constantly connected to the Internet, and the speed of data exchange will increase many times over. The number of users of social networks will increase, where the world's main news and information resources will move. Billions of inhabitants of the earth will receive a variety of information “at any time, anywhere,” including those prepared as part of information warfare, to achieve the military-political goals of individual states or blocs of states. All this must be taken into account to develop appropriate countermeasures to ensure the national security of the Russian Federation.

Kondrashov Vyacheslav Viktorovich,
Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor

The results of research into the surrounding world and people, the technical revolution underlying the widespread introduction of information systems and technologies in all spheres of human activity, changes taking place in international relations, on the one hand, allow, and on the other - are forced develop new unconventional weapons.

At the turn of the millennium, the military factor still plays an important role; moreover, many states continue to improve their armed forces, equipping them with the latest technology. The world is actively searching for new means of armed struggle. Dramatic advances over the past ten years in computer, information and telecommunications technologies have left the world vulnerable to new weapons, perhaps more dangerous than nuclear weapons. We are talking about a new generation of war - informational, aimed not so much at the direct destruction of the enemy, but at achieving political goals without conducting combat operations. This can be achieved by decisively suppressing the enemy’s will to resist, by the ability to paralyze his state and military control from the first hours of the war, inflict a crushing defeat on the army and thereby face the need for complete and unconditional surrender.

The increased importance of information potential, as one of the components of the power of the state and its armed forces, the development and improvement of non-military means of achieving political goals, namely “information weapons,” contributed to the identification of such a type of struggle as information warfare.

The idea of a strategy of so-called “indirect action” is not new. Back in the 5th century BC. Chinese military theorist Sun Tzu wrote: “He who knows how to wage war conquers someone else’s army without fighting; takes someone else’s fortresses without besieging him; crushes someone else’s state without holding his army for long.”

Western experts define information warfare as a method of armed struggle aimed at achieving military superiority over the enemy using information. American experts identify six main components of information warfare:

1. reconnaissance of the enemy’s military, economic, political and cultural potentials and preventing similar actions on his part;

2. destruction or suppression of the combat command and control information system of enemy troops and protection of one’s similar systems;

3. ensuring unhindered access to global information systems and preventing the enemy from accessing them;

4. widespread use of automated control systems as means of information support for combat activities;

5. establishment of mobile information and intelligence databases;

6. computer reproduction of a real battlefield, its widespread use.

Information warfare means

To reveal the essence of information warfare, we will define the relationship between the concepts of “struggle” and “confrontation.”

In general struggle involves an active clash of opposing social groups, opposing trends, interests.. It is due to the presence of conflicting relations between parties A and B, which can be states or social entities.

Conflict represents a clash of interests of various social socio-political subjects, a form of resolving contradictions between them through political, diplomatic, economic, ideological military and other means and corresponding forms of struggle.

Contradictions can be of a different nature, which determines the type of relationship between the parties. If the contradictions are agonistic in nature, then parties A and B are rivals; if the nature of the contradictions is antagonistic, then they are opponents. So a type of struggle, which is based on a contradiction, is: for example, sports wrestling.

Since there is no strict definition of the term “confrontation”, taking into account the above, we will give it the following definition:

Confrontation:

type of relationship, which is characterized by the presence of antagonistic contradictions between parties A and B;

a state characterizing the relationship between parties A and B, in which antagonistic contradictions exist between them (Fig. 1)

Fig.1. Types of relationships between parties A andB.

Information warfare- one of the types of human activity, characteristic of all stages of the development of society. The information struggle was and is being conducted at different levels, both in peacetime and in wartime, using various means, covering such important spheres of society as political, economic, military and spiritual.

As a type of struggle, information warfare is characterized by the corresponding object of influence, means and methods of achieving the goals.

Object of influence in information warfare is an information resource, which includes information, information media, information technology and information infrastructure. At the same time, information and its media, which form the basis of information processes, are the direct object of influence in the information war, and the information infrastructure is an indirect object.

Information as an object of influence is understood as a system of ideal (subjective) images of objects, processes and phenomena of the surrounding world in the human mind, as well as many features inherent in matter and forming ideal images.

This approach to defining information assumes that its carriers are energy fields (oscillations and waves) of electromagnetic, mechanical and other nature, flows of charged particles, as well as biochemical processes occurring in a living organism, the complex of which is united under the common name “mechanism of electrical excitability.” Oscillations (waves), flows of charged particles, to which various sensors (electronic devices, sensory organs) react, are characterized by a set of parameters. The value (magnitude) of these parameters is the sign, the multitude of which forms the image of an object, phenomenon and process in the human mind.

Sources of information are the objects themselves, processes and phenomena that emit (reflect) vibrations (waves) of various natures, as well as emitting streams of charged particles, and, of course, the human central nervous system (brain).

Taking into account the proposed definition of information, we will highlight its following forms (Fig. 2):

Fig.2. Classification of information.

figurative- as a product of reflection of objective reality in the human mind in the form of ideal (subjective) images;

indicative(material) - as a property of matter.

Figurative information is represented by such mental components of personality as knowledge, skills and abilities that a person is enriched with throughout his life. Wherein:

knowledge- predominantly logical information about the surrounding and internal world of a person, recorded in his consciousness, i.e. knowledge is stable images of objects, processes and phenomena, formed as a result of a person’s knowledge of himself and the world around him;

skills- a system of images that determines a person’s ability to perform specific actions under the guidance of consciousness without special concentration of attention;

skills- a system of knowledge and skills that determines a person’s ability to achieve a set goal (task) under the guidance of consciousness.

Depending on the source and medium of information, the characteristic information is inherent (Fig. 2):

information technology systems in the form signals, data, programs (algorithms),

objects of the material world in the form charactercharacteristics and parameters

documentary sources in the form signs(symbols) and messages.

The difference in the form and types of information has determined the areas of its vision, which have their own carriers and sources of information. These areas are:

Informative signs of objects, phenomena and processes of the surrounding world;

Information technology systems and tools;

Human psyche.

Throughout the history of mankind, mass information has played an important role in ensuring the success of the activities of certain socio-political forces.

Information warfare has always been and will be a companion to all other forms of clash of social forces.

Another thing "information war" - the desire for “victory” over the “enemy.”

“Information wars” are constantly being waged between various social forces even now, and often using dubious means. During military conflicts, opposing forces introduced military censorship, the use of radios was prohibited, enemy radio broadcasts were jammed, counter-propaganda intensified, was widely used to influence the population of the hostile sidedisinformation.

Disinformation - it is not absence (zero) of information. This is a special type of information, the essence of which is that due to the inadequacy of the texts (semantic, syntactic, pragmatic)it creates a false orientation system in the audience, forms an incorrect picture of reality, distorted values and goals.

The means of disinformation act as outright lies and half-truths, spreading rumors (which, however, are not always false),concealment of information, incorrect emphasis in the message, inappropriate comments, demagogic promises, populist flirting with the audience etc.

The incorrect consciousness formed in this way, in turn, gives rise to inadequate aspirations and forms of behavior that correspond to the goals of the disinformer.

During World War II, Nazi Germany's propaganda ministry, under the leadership of Goebbels, spread disinformation to both its own and foreign audiences. After the end of World War II, the time of the “Cold War” came, in which the most important component was the “information war” - the struggle “for the minds and hearts” of people with the help of “targeted” information, which also used the means of disinformation.

With the collapse of the USSR and the world “socialist system,” information relations within and between countries(due to the heterogeneity of the positions of various forces, they are complex and sometimes even confrontational in nature) became more complex and expanded . In a single and interdependent world, with the help of global communication systems, a single global information space is emerging, which tends to further expand.

The actions of multidirectional political forces, the unsettled nature of international information contacts, and the disordered functioning of computer media networks such as the Internet give rise to many problems in the field of information exchanges that require legal regulation and ethical self-regulation of participants in information activities. .

Information wars are currently unfolding not only in the international arena, but also in the country’s information space, so that by any means (often impermissible from the point of view of law and ethics) achieve "victory" ».

This occurs during periods of aggravation of social relations when certain “strong” countries or social forces strive to spread and consolidate their political, economic, ideological (etc.) interests in various regions, and this is often done accompanied by the threat of force or even the use of armed forces (and military actions are inevitably accompanied by the use of information warfare means). And in domestic politics, political and economic forces seeking dominance in order to achieve “victory” often resort to “dirty” technologies of information warfare, including often during periods of government elections.

In this regard, the question arises about information security in relation to media activities. The condition and factor of information security is ensuring the actual awareness of “consumers” of mass information and protecting it from the influence of destructive, misleading influences .

And such influences are caused by the conservative or even reactionary position of the media of certain social forces, and neglect of the information security of the audience for the sake of profit in the dissemination of “yellow” information, and ignorance of the true needs of the audience, etc. Therefore, it is so important for journalists to be aware of humanistic guidelines and to oppose those who unconsciously, and even more so consciously, have a negative attitude towards the true awareness of the audience, and thereby towards its information security.

Mass information activity is the essence of journalism, and mastering its general principles forms the foundation of the course. The concept of “mass information” is central, basic and therefore inevitably requires reference to other categories associated with it. Only upon completion of the course will mass information activity as a subject of study be fully comprehended; only a complete system of information about journalism as a field of mass information activity will ensure the integrity of understanding.

Questions for self-control:

1. What is the contradictory nature of the concept of “mass information”?

3. The triple meaning of the concept “information”.

4. Information and message. Unity and inconsistency of concepts.

5. What is the meaning of semantic, pragmatic and syntactic adequacy of texts?

6. The role of journalism in social management.

7. What position can a journalist take?

8. What is the essence of information warfare and information warfare?

9. What is disinformation?

Practical task:

1. Give specific examples of disinformation in modern journalistic practice.

The technological revolution has given rise to the term "information age"; this was the result of the fact that information systems became part of our lives and changed it radically. The information age has also changed the way warfare is conducted, providing social actors with an unprecedented quantity and quality of information.

Now you can watch the progress of hostilities and analyze events online.

However, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of struggle in the information era and information warfare. Fighting in the information age uses information technology as a means to successfully achieve results. For information warfare, information is a separate object or potential weapon and a profitable target. Information Age technologies have made it possible to directly manipulate enemy information.

Thus, it can be stated that states strive to acquire information that ensures the fulfillment of their goals, use it and protect it. These uses and protections can be in the economic, political and military spheres. Knowledge of the information that the enemy possesses is a means to strengthen the power of one side and reduce the power of the other. Information weapons affect the information held by the enemy and his information functions.

Information warfare is any action to use, destroy, distort the enemy’s information and its functions, protect one’s information against such actions, and use one’s own information functions.

This definition is the basis for the following statements. Information warfare is any attack against an information function, regardless of the means used.

Information warfare is any action to protect one's own information functions, regardless of the means used. Information warfare is only a means, not an end goal. It can be used as a means to carry out a strategic attack or countermeasure.

For information warfare to be effective, the opposing side needs to do three things:

1) observed fraudulent actions;

2) considered the deception to be true;

3) acted after the deception in accordance with the goals of the deceiver.

Information warfare has the following structure: 1) psychological operations - the use of information to influence the enemy’s argumentation;

2) information counteraction - does not allow the opponent to obtain accurate information;

3) disinformation - provides the opponent with false information about forces and intentions;

4) physical destruction - may be part of information warfare;

5) security measures - strive to avoid the opponent learning about capabilities and intentions;

6) direct information attacks - distortion of information without
visible change in the entity in which it resides.
Goals of information warfare:

1) control over the information space;

2) use of information control to conduct information attacks;

3) increasing the overall effectiveness of the armed forces through
widespread use of military information functions.

Definitions

Information confrontation- rivalry between social systems in the information and psychological sphere regarding influence on certain areas of social relations and establishing control over sources of strategic resources, as a result of which some participants in the rivalry receive the advantages they need for further development, while others lose them.

Under information warfare refers to the struggle in the information sphere, which involves a complex destructive impact on the information, information systems and information infrastructure of the opposing side while simultaneously protecting one’s own information, information systems and information infrastructure from such influence. The ultimate goal of information warfare is to gain and maintain information superiority over the opposing side.

Objects and subjects of information warfare

The object of information warfare is any object in relation to which it is possible to carry out information influence (including the use of information weapons) or other influence (force, political, economic, etc.), the result of which will be a modification of its properties as an information system. The object of information warfare can be any component or segment of the information-psychological space, including the following types: mass and individual consciousness of citizens; socio-political systems and processes; information infrastructure; information and psychological resources.

The subjects of information warfare include: states, their alliances and coalitions; international organizations; non-state illegal (including illegal international) armed groups and organizations of a terrorist, extremist, radical political, radical religious orientation; transnational corporations; virtual social communities; media corporations (controlling the media and mass communications - media and MK); virtual coalitions.

Notes

Links

Manoilo A.V. Objects and subjects of information warfare. 2003.
Styugin M. Security assessment of the information management system of the Russian Federation. 2006.
Fedorov A.V. Transformations of the image of Russia on the Western screen: from the era of ideological confrontation (1946-1991) to the modern stage (1992-2010). M.: Publishing house MOO "Information for everyone", 2010. 202 p.

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

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