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Series of microcircuits. Integrated circuit The first integrated circuit

Integrated circuit

Modern integrated circuits designed for surface mounting.

Soviet and foreign digital microcircuits.

Integral(engl. Integrated circuit, IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip), ( micro)scheme (IS, IMS, m/skh), chip, microchip(English) chip- sliver, fragment, chip) - microelectronic device - an electronic circuit of arbitrary complexity, manufactured on a semiconductor crystal (or film) and placed in a non-separable housing. Often under integrated circuit(IC) refers to the actual crystal or film with an electronic circuit, and by microcircuit(MS) - IC enclosed in a housing. At the same time, the expression "chip components" means "surface mount components" as opposed to traditional through-hole soldered components. Therefore, it is more correct to say “chip microcircuit”, meaning a surface-mount microcircuit. Currently (year) most microcircuits are manufactured in surface-mount packages.

Story

The invention of microcircuits began with the study of the properties of thin oxide films, which manifest themselves in the effect of poor electrical conductivity at low electrical voltages. The problem was that where the two metals touched, there was no electrical contact or it was polar. Deep studies of this phenomenon led to the discovery of diodes and later transistors and integrated circuits.

Design Levels

Physical - methods of implementing one transistor (or a small group) in the form of doped zones on a crystal.
Electrical - circuit diagram (transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.).
Logical - logical circuit (logical inverters, OR-NOT, AND-NOT elements, etc.).
Circuit and system level - circuit and system design (flip-flops, comparators, encoders, decoders, ALUs, etc.).
Topological - topological photomasks for production.
Program level (for microcontrollers and microprocessors) - assembler instructions for the programmer.

Currently, most integrated circuits are developed using CAD, which allows you to automate and significantly speed up the process of obtaining topological photomasks.

Classification

Degree of integration

Purpose

An integrated circuit can have complete, no matter how complex, functionality - up to an entire microcomputer (single-chip microcomputer).

Analog circuits

Signal generators
Analog multipliers
Analog attenuators and variable amplifiers
Power supply stabilizers
Switching power supply control chips
Signal converters
Timing circuits
Various sensors (temperature, etc.)

Digital circuits

Logic elements
Buffer converters
Memory modules
(Micro)processors (including the CPU in a computer)
Single-chip microcomputers
FPGA - programmable logic integrated circuits

Digital integrated circuits have a number of advantages over analog ones:

Reduced power consumption associated with the use of pulsed electrical signals in digital electronics. When receiving and converting such signals, the active elements of electronic devices (transistors) operate in the “key” mode, that is, the transistor is either “open” - which corresponds to a high-level signal (1), or “closed” - (0), in the first case at There is no voltage drop in the transistor; in the second, no current flows through it. In both cases, power consumption is close to 0, unlike analog devices, in which most of the time the transistors are in an intermediate (resistive) state.
High noise immunity digital devices is associated with a large difference between high (for example 2.5 - 5 V) and low (0 - 0.5 V) level signals. An error is possible with such interference when a high level is perceived as low and vice versa, which is unlikely. In addition, in digital devices it is possible to use special codes to correct errors.
The large difference between high and low level signals and a fairly wide range of their permissible changes makes digital technology insensitive to the inevitable dispersion of element parameters in integrated technology, eliminating the need to select and configure digital devices.

On September 12, 1958, Texas Instruments (TI) employee Jack Kilby demonstrated to management a strange device - a device made of two pieces of silicon measuring 11.1 x 1.6 mm glued with beeswax on a glass substrate. It was a three-dimensional mock-up - a prototype of an integrated circuit (IC) of a generator, proving the possibility of manufacturing all circuit elements based on one semiconductor material. This date is celebrated in the history of electronics as the birthday of integrated circuits.

Integrated circuits (chips, ICs) include electronic devices of varying complexity, in which all similar elements are manufactured simultaneously in a single technological cycle, i.e. using integrated technology. Unlike printed circuit boards (in which all connecting conductors are simultaneously manufactured in a single cycle using integrated technology), resistors, capacitors, diodes and transistors are similarly formed in ICs. In addition, many ICs are manufactured simultaneously, from tens to thousands

Previously, two groups of ICs were distinguished: hybrid and semiconductor

In hybrid ICs (HICs), all conductors and passive elements are formed on the surface of a microcircuit substrate (usually ceramic) using integrated technology. Active elements in the form of packaged diodes, transistors and semiconductor IC crystals are installed on the substrate individually, manually or automatically

In semiconductor ICs, connecting, passive and active elements are formed in a single technological cycle on the surface of the semiconductor material with partial invasion of its volume using diffusion methods. At the same time, from several tens to several thousand ICs are manufactured on one semiconductor wafer

The first hybrid ICs.

GIS is a product of the evolutionary development of micromodules and ceramic board mounting technology. Therefore, they appeared unnoticed; there is no generally accepted date of birth of GIS and no generally recognized author.

Semiconductor ICs were a natural and inevitable result of the development of semiconductor technology, but they required the generation of new ideas and the creation of new technology, which have both their birth dates and their authors

The first hybrid and semiconductor ICs appeared in the USSR and the USA almost simultaneously and independently of each other

Back in the late 1940s, the Centralab company in the USA developed the basic principles for the manufacture of thick-film ceramic-based printed circuit boards

And in the early 1950s, the RCA company invented thin-film technology: by spraying various materials in a vacuum and depositing them through a mask onto special substrates, they learned how to simultaneously produce many miniature film connecting conductors, resistors and capacitors on a single ceramic substrate

Compared to thick-film technology, thin-film technology provided the possibility of more precise manufacturing of smaller-sized topology elements, but required more complex and expensive equipment. Devices manufactured on ceramic boards using thick-film or thin-film technology are called “hybrid circuits.”

But the micromodule became a hybrid integrated circuit at the moment when unpackaged transistors and diodes were used in it and the structure was sealed in a common housing

In the USSR

The first GIS (modules of the “Kvant” type, later designated IS series 116) in the USSR were developed in 1963 at NIIRE (later NPO Leninets, Leningrad) and in the same year its pilot plant began their serial production. In these GIS, semiconductor ICs “R12-2”, developed in 1962 by the Riga Semiconductor Devices Plant, were used as active elements

Undoubtedly, the Kvant modules were the first in the world of GIS with two-level integration - they used semiconductor ICs rather than discrete packaged transistors as active elements

In the USA

The appearance of thick-film GIS as the main element base of the new IBM System /360 computer was first announced by IBM in 1964

Semiconductor ICs of the “Micrologic” series from Fairchild and “SN-51” from TI were still inaccessibly rare and prohibitively expensive for commercial use, building a large computer. Therefore, IBM Corporation, taking the design of a flat micromodule as a basis, developed its series of thick-film GIS, announced under the general name (as opposed to “micromodules”) is “SLT-modules” (Solid Logic Technology - solid logic technology. Usually the word “solid” is translated into Russian as “solid”, which is absolutely illogical. Indeed, the term “SLT-modules” ” was introduced by IBM as a contrast to the term “micromodule” and should reflect their difference. The word “solid” has other meanings - “solid”, “whole”, which successfully emphasize the difference between “SLT modules” and “micromodules”.

The SLT module was a square ceramic thick-film microplate with pressed-in vertical pins. Connecting conductors and resistors were applied to its surface using silk-screen printing, and unpackaged transistors were installed. Capacitors, if necessary, were installed next to the SLT module

Although externally almost identical (micromodules are slightly taller), SLT modules differ from flat micromodules in their higher density of elements, low power consumption, high performance and high reliability

In addition, SLT technology was quite easy to automate, so they could be produced at a low enough cost for use in commercial equipment. This is exactly what IBM needed. Following IBM, other companies began to produce GIS, for which GIS became a commercial product.

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Ministry of Education and Science of Russia

Federal State Unitary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education

"St. Petersburg State Electrotechnical University "LETI" named after V.I. Ulyanov (Lenin)"

(SPbSETU "LETI")

Department of Philosophy

Abstract

on the topic:" History of the development of integrated electronics"

Postgraduate student of JSC "NPP SRadar MMSS"

Popova A.B.

Scientific supervisor:

Doctor of Technical Sciences, Prof. Balashov V.M.

St. Petersburg 2015

Introduction
Chapter 1. Main directions of development of microelectronics
1.1 Electronics and types of electronics
1.2 Development of microelectronics
Chapter 2. Evolution of integrated electronics
2.1 Integrated circuits and stages of development of integrated electronics
2.2 The role of thin film technology in the development of integrated electronics
Conclusion
Literature

Introduction

The origin and development of microelectronics as a new scientific and technical direction that ensures the creation of complex radio-electronic equipment (REA) is directly related to the crisis situation that arose in the early 60s, when traditional methods of manufacturing REA from discrete elements by their sequential assembly could not provide the required reliability, efficiency, energy consumption, manufacturing time and acceptable dimensions of REA.

Despite the short period of its existence, the interconnection of microelectronics with other areas of science and technology has ensured unusually high rates of development of this industry and significantly reduced the time for the industrial implementation of new ideas. This was also facilitated by the emergence of peculiar feedback links between the development of integrated circuits, which are the basis for automation of production and management, and the use of these developments to automate the very process of design, production and testing of integrated circuits.

The development of microelectronics has made fundamental changes in the design principles of electronic devices and led to the use of complex integration, which consists of: structural or circuit integration (i.e., integration of circuit functions within a single structural unit); with the degree of integration on the order of hundreds and thousands of components, existing methods of dividing systems into components, devices, subsystems and blocks, as well as forms of coordinating the development of components, devices and subsystems, become ineffective; At the same time, the center of gravity moves to the area of circuitry, which requires a radical restructuring of the methods for implementing electronic systems with the construction of equipment at the supermodular level.

Chapter 1. Main directions of development of microelectronics

1.1 Electronics and types of electronics

Electronics is a science that studies the phenomena of interaction of electrons and other charged particles with electric, magnetic and electromagnetic fields, which is the physical basis for the operation of electronic devices and devices (vacuum, gas-charging, semiconductor and others) used for transmitting, processing and storing information.

Covering a wide range of scientific, technical and industrial problems, electronics is based on advances in various fields of knowledge. At the same time, on the one hand, electronics poses new tasks for other sciences and production, stimulating their further development, and on the other hand, it supplies them with qualitatively new technical means and research methods.

The main directions of development of electronics are: vacuum, solid-state and quantum electronics.

Vacuum electronics is a branch of electronics that includes studies of the interaction of free electron flows with electric and magnetic fields in a vacuum, as well as methods for creating electronic devices and devices in which this interaction is used. The most important areas of research in the field of vacuum electronics include: electron emission (in particular, thermal and photoelectron emission); generating a flow of electrons and/or ions and controlling these flows; formation of electromagnetic fields using energy input and output devices; physics and technology of high vacuum, etc.

The main directions of development of vacuum electronics are associated with the creation of electric vacuum devices of the following types: electron tubes (diodes, triodes, tetrodes, etc.); ultrahigh frequency electro-vacuum devices (for example, magnetrons, klystrons, traveling and backward wave tubes); electron beam and photoelectronic devices (for example, picture tubes, vidicons, electron-optical converters, photomultipliers); gas-discharge devices (for example, thyratrons, gas-charging indicators).

Solid-state electronics solves problems related to the study of the properties of solid-state materials (semiconductor, dielectric, magnetic, etc.), the influence of impurities and structural features of the material on these properties; studying the properties of surfaces and interfaces between layers of various materials; creating regions with different types of conductivity in a crystal using various methods; creation of heterojunctions and single-crystal structures; creation of functional devices of micron and submicron sizes, as well as methods for measuring their parameters.

The main areas of solid-state electronics are: semiconductor electronics, associated with the development of various types of semiconductor devices, and microelectronics, associated with the development of integrated circuits.

Quantum electronics covers a wide range of issues related to the development of methods and means for amplifying and generating electromagnetic oscillations based on the effect of stimulated emission of atoms and molecules. The main directions of quantum electronics: the creation of optical quantum generators (lasers), quantum amplifiers, molecular generators, etc.

The features of quantum electronics devices are the following: high stability of the oscillation frequency, low level of intrinsic noise, high power in the radiation pulse - which make it possible to use them to create high-precision rangefinders, quantum frequency standards, quantum gyroscopes, optical multichannel communication systems, deep space communications, medical equipment, laser sound recording and playback, etc. Even miniature laser pointers have been created for minimal accompaniment.

1.2 Development of microelectronics

Microelectronics is a complex field of knowledge, the object of study and development of which is functionally complex integrated circuits, their structure, technology, diagnostics, reliability and operation. Microelectronic devices purposefully influence electromagnetic processes in a solid body, which makes it possible to process information at high speed and store information for a long time in fairly small volumes of a solid body.

Microelectronics was formed on the basis of comprehensive scientific research and achievements of engineering practice in accordance with the requirements of scientific and technological progress. ME concepts and methods, which have emerged and developed over more than 30 years, are widely used in computer science, computer science, automation, and solid state physics. Microelectronics is rapidly progressing in its development and practical use of results and has turned from a highly specialized area into a general physical one.

Being, as it were, in the border area of solid state physics, chemistry, electrodynamics, and radiophysics, it acquired its extensive theoretical foundation.

As a scientific direction with a certain technical implementation. ME is based on the ideas of functional integration of microdevices on a chip, planar technology of chips integrated on a washer, group processing of washer material and functional control of LSI memory.

Functional control is based on the synthesis of ideas reflecting the relationship between physicochemical and electromagnetic processes occurring in microdevices and the functional (targeted) transformation of information signals.

Due to an integrated approach, functional control combines a number of scientific areas, creates technological means of engineering implementation, diagnostics of LSIs and allows us to determine their reliability. To understand the prerequisites for the emergence of functional diagnostic monitoring of LSI and its distinctive features, it is necessary to trace the transition from discrete electronics (DE) to microelectronics (ME), as well as to establish the difference between monitoring and diagnostic objects.

Until the mid-1950s. The main direction of development of electronic equipment (ET) was the specialization of its element base, including improvement of the design, miniaturization and improvement of the parameters of discrete electronic components (active and passive) of electronic equipment (EA). These include vacuum devices (lamps), resistances, capacitors, inductors, panels, connectors, etc. Each of the electronic components (EC) was manufactured independently and was not structurally, much less functionally, connected to the other.

Hence the name - discrete elements of EA.

This method of designing and producing EA has its advantages. These primarily include:

the possibility of individual control of each EC;

a simple procedure for measuring and assessing the suitability of an EC using elementary instrumentation and control equipment (KIA);

convenient settings that allow you to achieve the required electrical characteristics of electronic units and EA in general;

ease of detection and localization of defects both when setting up electronic units and in the event of electronic equipment failure

during operation;

maintainability of the EA (availability of any EC, the possibility of replacing it in the EA)

All this helps to reduce defects in finished products and technical control of electronic components and the equipment itself.

In the early 1950s. The first general purpose computers appeared. They also used vacuum tubes to create nodes for computing, controlling, processing, and storing information. These computers were bulky, immobile, and emitted a large amount of thermal energy, which necessitated forced cooling. They occupied large halls and required constant maintenance. The reliability of computer operation was low, and the cost of production was high.

To store control and calculation programs, the capacity of storage devices (memory) has continuously increased. The accelerated development of science, aerospace and military technology has led to the emergence of serious problems not only in the study and management of rapidly occurring processes, but also in the processing of large volumes of information in short periods of time.

Technical results of research in the field of physics and solid state chemistry, as well as the production of chemically pure semiconductors and ferromagnets, the synthesis of thin layers of metals and dielectrics have received specific practical application. At the end of the 1950s, they began to use solid-state EC - transistors (Tr) and diodes (D) - discrete mounted elements, which made it possible to significantly reduce the dimensions and power consumption of computers and, consequently, reduce heat generation and increase reliability.

Discrete active (D, Tr), as well as massive (R, C, L) elements continued to be improved: their sizes and energy consumption decreased, control improved, and the reliability of the EC increased. This made it possible to change the dimensions of functionally complete devices - micromodules, which took the form of a stacked or flat structure in which discrete elements are connected by soldering or welding. Testers focused on signal control and reliability. Thus, expanding the functional complexity of EA required the use of a large number of EC and, consequently, an increase in rations, which reduced reliability. The control and measuring equipment was not automated, and complete control of each EC for EA took a lot of time, which, in turn, affected the cost of the equipment.

The rapidly developing areas of technology for storing and high-speed information processing required ensuring high reliability and long-term trouble-free operation of electronic equipment operated under various external influences. At the same time, the range of changes in influencing factors is very wide (it may also include operating conditions). There was a need to create REA that meets the requirements of technical progress. These include:

increasing the functional complexity of equipment for solving process control problems;

increased performance in calculations and process control;

reduction of weight and size characteristics of equipment;

reduction of energy consumption during operation;

increased reliability;

reduction in equipment costs.

New characteristics of EA could be realized only with significant miniaturization of EA components and elimination of the use of soldering. The production of small-sized EA based on discrete elements has encountered fundamental, insurmountable technological obstacles.

The next disadvantage is associated with the assembly operations of EA and discrete elements. This labor-intensive process could not be automated, and the cost of EA remained high.

The disadvantages also include the many external contacts on the board, i.e. a small number of functions per contact.

The limiting factors of this design principle also include the large length of the switching circuits of the circuit, which reduces the performance and noise immunity of the EA.

Thus, further improvement of EA on a discrete element base was limited by technological methods of manufacturing and monitoring of EC, and not by reasons of a physical nature.

The considered limitations of the principle of designing electronic devices on discrete elements were discovered during the creation of small-sized, highly reliable on-board computers, the speed of which is commensurate with the speed of processes in these devices (operating in real time). This confirmed the need to improve EA and increase its reliability as a central problem in electronic technology. The goal was defined - microminiaturization as a result of functional integration of electronic circuit components on a solid-state basis, i.e. creation of integrated circuits (ICs) by integrating EC. For the technical implementation of the idea of microminiaturization of EA based on the functional integration of passive and active EC, new materials and equipment, and other technological principles for their implementation and control were required. All IC components of the same type should be manufactured simultaneously in a single technological cycle, using a group method of processing materials, carrying out control automatically, on a functional principle. This direction of electronics is called microelectronics. Thus, the basis of microelectronics is the following principles:

EA is created on the basis of an IS with constructive and functional integration of microdevices - EC;

physical processes in microdevices occur in microvolumes, in thin layered structures;

simultaneous production of similar design elements of IC microdevices using planar technology and group processing of material;

functional control of ICs and test circuits.

The appearance of the first microelectronic devices - ICs - was preceded by fundamental research and technical developments in the field of solid state physics, chemistry and radio electronics.

Chapter 2. Evolution of integrated electronics

2.1 Integrated circuits and stages of development of integrated electronics

Integrated Circuit (IC) is a microelectronic product that performs the functions of signal conversion and processing, which is characterized by dense packing of elements so that all connections and connections between elements form a single whole.

An integral part of an IC are elements that act as electrical and radio elements (transistors, resistors, etc.) and cannot be separated as independent products. In this case, IC elements that perform the functions of amplification or other signal conversion (diodes, transistors, etc.) are called active, and elements that implement a linear transfer function (resistors, capacitors, inductors) are called passive.

Classification of integrated circuits:

By manufacturing method:

According to the degree of integration.

The degree of integration of an information system is an indicator of complexity, characterized by the number of elements and components it contains. The degree of integration is determined by the formula

k=log(N),

where k is a coefficient that determines the degree of integration, rounded to the nearest larger integer, and N is the number of elements and components included in the IS.

To quantitatively characterize the degree of integration, the following terms are often used: if k ? 1, An IC is called a simple IC if 1< k ? 2 - средней ИС (СИС), если 2 < k ? 4 - большой ИС (БИС), если k ?4 - сверхбольшой ИС (СБИС).

In addition to the degree of integration, another indicator is used as the packing density of elements - the number of elements (most often transistors) per unit area of the crystal. This indicator mainly characterizes the level of technology; currently it is more than 1000 elements/mm 2.

Film integrated circuits- these are integrated circuits, the elements of which are deposited on the surface of a dielectric base in the form of a film. Their peculiarity is that they do not exist in their pure form. They are used only for the manufacture of passive elements - resistors, capacitors, conductors, inductors.

Rice. 1. Structure of a film hybrid IC: 1, 2 - lower and upper capacitor plates, 3 - dielectric layer, 4 - wire connecting bus, 5 - mounted transistor, 6 - film resistor, 7 - pin terminal, 8 - dielectric substrate

Hybrid ICs are thin-film microcircuits consisting of passive elements (resistors, capacitors, pads) and discrete active elements (diodes, transistors). The hybrid IC shown in Fig. 1, is a dielectric substrate with film capacitors and resistors applied to it and an attached mounted transistor, the base of which is connected to the upper plate of the capacitor by a bus in the form of a very thin wire.

In semiconductor ICs All elements and inter-element connections are made in the bulk and on the surface of the semiconductor crystal. Semiconductor ICs are a flat semiconductor crystal (substrate), in the surface layer of which, using various technological techniques, local areas equivalent to the elements of an electrical circuit are formed (diodes, transistors, capacitors, resistors, etc.), united along the surface by film metal connections (interconnections).

The substrates of semiconductor ICs are round wafers of silicon, germanium or gallium arsenide, having a diameter of 60 - 150 mm and a thickness of 0.2 - 0.4 mm.

The semiconductor substrate is a group workpiece (Fig. 2), on which a large number of ICs are simultaneously manufactured.

Rice. 2. Group silicon wafer: 1 - basic slice, 2 - individual crystals (chips)

After completing the main technological operations, it is cut into parts - crystals 2, also called chips. The dimensions of the crystal sides can be from 3 to 10 mm. The base cut 1 of the plate serves to orient it during various technological processes.

The structures of the elements of a semiconductor IC - transistor, diode, resistor and capacitor, manufactured by appropriate doping of local sections of the semiconductor using planar technology methods, are shown in Fig. 3, a-d. Planar technology is characterized by the fact that all the terminals of the IC elements are located in the same plane on the surface and are simultaneously connected into an electrical circuit using thin-film interconnects. With planar technology, group processing is carried out, i.e., during one technological process, a large number of ICs are produced on substrates, which ensures high manufacturability and efficiency, and also allows automation of production.

Rice. 3. Structures of elements of a semiconductor IC: a - transistor, b - diode, c - resistor, d - capacitor, 1 - thin-film contact, 2 - dielectric layer, H - emitter; 4 - base, 5 - collector, 6 - cathode, 7 - anode, 8 - insulating layer; 9 - resistive layer, 10 - insulating layer, 11 - plate, 12, 14 - upper and lower electrodes of the capacitor, 13 - dielectric layer

INcombined IP(Fig. 4), which are a variant of semiconductor ones, create semiconductor and thin-film elements on a silicon substrate. The advantage of these circuits is that it is technologically difficult to manufacture resistors of a given resistance in a solid body, since it depends not only on the thickness of the doped semiconductor layer, but also on the distribution of resistivity over the thickness. Adjusting the resistance to the nominal value after manufacturing the resistor also presents significant difficulties. Semiconductor resistors have a noticeable temperature dependence, which complicates IC development.

Rice. 4. Structure of the combined IC: 1 - silicon dioxide film, 2 - diode, 3 - film in-circuit connections, 4 - thin-film resistor, 5, 6, 7 - upper and lower electrodes of the thin-film capacitor and dielectric, 8 - thin-film contacts, 9 - transistor , 10 - silicon wafer.

In addition, it is also very difficult to create capacitors in solids. To expand the resistor and capacitor ratings of semiconductor ICs and improve their performance characteristics, a combination technology based on thin film technology called interconnected circuit technology has been developed. In this case, the active elements of the IC (possibly some resistors that are not critical in terms of nominal resistance) are manufactured in the body of the silicon crystal using the diffusion method, and then passive elements - resistors, capacitors and interconnections - are formed by vacuum deposition of films (as in film ICs).

The electronics element base is developing at an ever-increasing pace. Each generation, having appeared at a certain point in time, continues to improve in the most justified directions. The development of electronic products from generation to generation is moving in the direction of their functional complexity, increasing reliability and service life, reducing overall dimensions, weight, cost and energy consumption, simplifying technology and improving the parameters of electronic equipment.

The emergence of microelectronics as an independent science became possible thanks to the use of rich experience and the base of the industry producing discrete semiconductor devices. However, as semiconductor electronics developed, serious limitations in the use of electronic phenomena and systems based on them became clear. Therefore, microelectronics continues to advance at a rapid pace both in the direction of improving semiconductor integrated technology and in the direction of using new physical phenomena. radio electronic integrated circuit

Microelectronics products: integrated circuits of various degrees of integration, microassemblies, microprocessors, mini- and micro-computers - made it possible to carry out the design and industrial production of functionally complex radio and computing equipment, which differs from equipment of previous generations in better parameters, higher reliability and service life, shorter energy consumption and cost. Equipment based on microelectronics products is widely used in all areas of human activity.

Microelectronics contributes to the creation of computer-aided design systems, industrial robots, automated and automatic production lines, communications equipment and much more.

First stage

The first stage included the invention of the incandescent lamp in 1809 by the Russian engineer Ladygin.

The discovery in 1874 by the German scientist Brown of the rectifying effect in metal-semiconductor contacts. The use of this effect by the Russian inventor Popov to detect a radio signal allowed him to create the first radio receiver. The date of invention of radio is considered to be May 7, 1895, when Popov gave a report and demonstration at a meeting of the physics department of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society in St. Petersburg. In different countries, development and research was carried out on various types of simple and reliable detectors of high-frequency vibrations - detectors.

Second stage

The second stage in the development of electronics began in 1904, when the English scientist Fleming designed an electric vacuum diode. This was followed by the invention of the first amplification tube, the triode, in 1907.

1913 - 1919 was a period of rapid development of electronic technology. In 1913, the German engineer Meissner developed a circuit for a tube regenerative receiver and, using a triode, obtained undamped harmonic oscillations.

In Russia, the first radio tubes were manufactured in 1914 in St. Petersburg by Nikolai Dmitrievich Papaleksi, a consultant to the Russian Society of Wireless Telegraphy, a future academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Third stage

The third period in the development of electronics is the period of the creation and implementation of discrete semiconductor devices, which began with the invention of the point-point transistor. In 1946, a group led by William Shockley was created at the Bell Telephone Laboratory, which conducted research on the properties of semiconductors on Silicon and Germany. The group carried out both theoretical and experimental studies of physical processes at the interface between two semiconductors with different types of electrical conductivity. As a result, three-electrode semiconductor devices were invented - transistors. Depending on the number of charge carriers, transistors were divided into:

Unipolar (field), where unipolar media were used.

Bipolar, where different polarity carriers (electrons and holes) were used.

The invention of the transistor was a significant milestone in the history of electronics and therefore its authors John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1956.

The emergence of microelectronics

With the advent of bipolar field-effect transistors, ideas for the development of small-sized computers began to be realized. On their basis, they began to create on-board electronic systems for aviation and space technology. Since these devices contained thousands of individual electroradio elements and more and more of them were constantly required, technical difficulties arose. With the increase in the number of elements of electronic systems, it was practically impossible to ensure their operability immediately after assembly, and to ensure, in the future, the reliability of the systems. The problem of the quality of installation and assembly work has become the main problem for manufacturers in ensuring the operability and reliability of radio-electronic devices. The solution to the interconnection problem was a prerequisite for the emergence of microelectronics. The prototype of future microcircuits was a printed circuit board, in which all single conductors are combined into a single whole and manufactured simultaneously in a group method by etching copper foil with the plane of the foil dielectric. The only type of integration in this case is conductors. Although the use of printed circuit boards does not solve the problem of miniaturization, it does solve the problem of increasing the reliability of interconnections. Printed circuit board manufacturing technology does not make it possible to simultaneously manufacture other passive elements other than conductors. This is why printed circuit boards have not evolved into integrated circuits in the modern sense. Thick-film hybrid circuits were the first to be developed in the late 40s; their production was based on the already proven technology for manufacturing ceramic capacitors, using the method of applying pastes containing silver and glass powder to a ceramic substrate through stencils.

Thin-film technology for the production of integrated circuits involves applying thin films of various materials (conducting, dielectric, resistive) to the smooth surface of dielectric substrates in a vacuum.

Fourth stage

In 1960, Robert Noyce of Fairchild proposed and patented the idea of a monolithic integrated circuit and, using planar technology, produced the first silicon monolithic integrated circuits.

A family of monolithic transistor-transistor logic elements with four or more bipolar transistors on a single silicon chip was released by Fairchild already in February 1960 and was called “micrologics”. Horney's planar technology and Noyce's monolithic technology laid the foundation for the development of integrated circuits in 1960, first with bipolar transistors, and then 1965-85. on field-effect transistors and combinations of both.

Two policy decisions adopted in 1961-1962. influenced the development of the production of silicon transistors and ICs. The decision of IBM (New York) to develop for a promising computer not ferromagnetic storage devices, but electronic memories (storage devices) based on n-channel field-effect transistors (metal-oxide-semiconductor - MOS). The result of the successful implementation of this plan was the release in 1973. universal computer with MOS memory - IBM-370/158. Directive decisions of Fairchild providing for the expansion of work in the semiconductor research laboratory for the study of silicon devices and materials for them.

Meanwhile, in July 1968, Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce left Fairchild's semiconductor division and on June 28, 1968, organized a tiny company, Intel, with twelve people who rented a room in Mountain View, California. The task that Moore, Noyce and the chemical technology specialist who joined them, Andrew Grove, set themselves was to use the enormous potential of integrating a large number of electronic components on a single semiconductor chip to create new types of electronic devices.

In 1997, Andrew Grove became “person of the year,” and the company he headed, Intel, which became one of the leading companies in Silicon Valley in California, began producing microprocessors for 90% of all personal computers on the planet. The emergence of integrated circuits played a decisive role in the development of electronics, ushering in a new stage of microelectronics. Microelectronics of the fourth period is called schematic, because in the composition of the main basic elements it is possible to distinguish elements equivalent to discrete electro-radio elements and each integrated circuit corresponds to a certain basic electrical circuit, as for electronic components of equipment of previous generations.

Integrated circuits began to be called microelectronic devices, considered as a single product with a high density of elements equivalent to the elements of a conventional circuit. The complexity of the functions performed by microcircuits is achieved by increasing the degree of integration.

RealherelectronicsAnd

Currently, microelectronics is moving to a qualitatively new level - nanoelectronics.

Nanoelectronics is primarily based on the results of fundamental studies of atomic processes in low-dimensional semiconductor structures. Quantum dots, or zero-dimensional systems, are an extreme case of reduced-dimensional systems that consist of an array of nanometer-sized atomic clusters or islands in a semiconductor matrix that exhibit self-organization in epitaxial heterostructures.

One of the possible works related to nanoelectronics is the creation of materials and elements of IR technology. They are in demand by industry enterprises and are the basis for the creation in the near future of “artificial” (technical) vision systems with an expanded spectral range, compared to biological vision, in the ultraviolet and infrared regions of the spectrum. Technical vision systems and photonic components on nanostructures, capable of receiving and processing huge amounts of information, will become the basis of fundamentally new telecommunication devices, environmental and space monitoring systems, thermal imaging, nanodiagnostics, robotics, precision weapons, counter-terrorism equipment, etc. The use of semiconductor nanostructures will significantly reduce the size of monitoring and recording devices, reduce energy consumption, improve cost characteristics and make it possible to take advantage of mass production in micro- and nanoelectronics of the near future.

2.2 The role of thin film technology in the development of integrated electronics

The thin-film direction of integrated electronics is based on the sequential growth of films of various materials on a common base (substrate) with the simultaneous formation of micro parts (resistors, capacitors, contact pads, etc.) and in-circuit connections from these films.

Relatively recently, semiconductor (solid) and thin-film hybrid ICs were considered as competing directions in the development of integrated electronics. In recent years, it has become obvious that these two directions are not at all exclusive, but rather, on the contrary, mutually complement and enrich each other. Moreover, to this day, integrated circuits using any one type of technology have not been created (and, apparently, there is no need for this). Even monolithic silicon circuits, manufactured mainly using semiconductor technology, simultaneously use methods such as vacuum deposition of films of aluminum and other metals to produce in-circuit connections, i.e. methods on which thin film technology is based.

The great advantage of thin-film technology is its flexibility, expressed in the ability to select materials with optimal parameters and characteristics and to obtain, in fact, any required configuration and parameters of passive elements. In this case, the tolerances with which individual parameters of the elements are maintained can be increased to 1-2%. This advantage is especially effective in cases where the exact value of the ratings and the stability of the parameters of passive components are critical (for example, in the manufacture of linear circuits, resistive and RC circuits, some types of filters, phase-sensitive and selective circuits, generators, etc. .).

Due to the continuous development and improvement of both semiconductor and thin film technology, as well as the increasing complexity of ICs, which is reflected in an increase in the number of components and the complexity of their functions, it should be expected that in the near future there will be a process of integration of technological methods and techniques and most complex ICs will be manufactured using converged technology. In this case, it is possible to obtain such parameters and such reliability of the IC that cannot be achieved using each type of technology separately. For example, in the manufacture of a semiconductor IC, all elements (passive and active) are performed in one technological process, so the parameters of the elements are interrelated. The active elements are decisive, since usually the base-collector junction of the transistor is used as a capacitor, and the diffusion region resulting from creating the base of the transistor is used as a resistor. It is impossible to optimize the parameters of one element without simultaneously changing the characteristics of others. Given the characteristics of active elements, the ratings of passive elements can only be changed by changing their sizes.

When using combined technology, active elements are most often manufactured using planar technology in a silicon wafer, and passive elements are manufactured using thin-film technology over the years on oxidized element-by-element (resistors and sometimes capacitors) - the surface of the same silicon wafer. However, the manufacturing processes of the active and passive parts of the IC are separated in time. Therefore, the characteristics of passive elements are largely independent and are determined by the choice of material, film thickness and geometry. Because the transistors of a hybrid IC are located inside the substrate, the size of such a circuit can be significantly reduced compared to hybrid ICs, which use discrete active elements that occupy a relatively large amount of space on the substrate.

Circuits made using combined technology have a number of undoubted advantages. For example, in this case it is possible to obtain resistors with a large value and a small temperature coefficient of resistance, having a very narrow width and a high surface resistance, in a small area. Controlling the deposition rate during the production of resistors allows them to be manufactured with very high precision. Resistors obtained by film deposition are not characterized by leakage currents through the substrate even at high temperatures, and the relatively high thermal conductivity of the substrate prevents the possibility of areas with elevated temperatures appearing in circuits.

Conclusion

The current stage of development of integrated electronics is characterized by tendencies to further increase operating frequencies and reduce switching times, increase reliability, and reduce costs for materials and the IC manufacturing process.

Reducing the cost of integrated circuits requires the development of qualitatively new principles for their manufacture using processes based on similar physical and chemical phenomena, which, on the one hand, is a prerequisite for the subsequent integration of homogeneous technological operations of the production cycle and, on the other hand, opens up fundamental the ability to control all operations from a computer. The need for qualitative changes in technology and technical re-equipment of the industry is also dictated by the transition to the next stage of development of microelectronics - functional electronics, which is based on optical, magnetic, surface and plasma phenomena, phase transitions, electron-phonon interactions, effects of accumulation and charge transfer, etc.

The criterion for the “progressiveness” of the technological process, along with the improvement of the parameters and characteristics of the product itself, is high economic efficiency, determined by a number of private, interrelated criteria that ensure the possibility of building sets of fully automated, high-performance equipment with a long service life.

The most important particular criteria are:

universality, i.e. the ability to carry out the entire (or the overwhelming number of operations) of the production cycle using the same technological methods;

continuity, which is a prerequisite for subsequent integration (combination) of a number of technological operations of the production cycle, combined with the possibility of using simultaneous group processing of a significant number of products or semi-finished products;

high speed of all main operations of the technological process or the possibility of their intensification, for example, as a result of exposure to electric and magnetic fields, laser radiation, etc.;

reproducibility of parameters at each operation and a high percentage of yield of both semi-finished and suitable products;

manufacturability of the design of a product or semi-finished product that meets the requirements of automated production (possibility of automated loading, basing, installation, assembly, etc.), which should be reflected in the simplicity of the form, as well as limited tolerances for overall and basic dimensions;

formalization, i.e. the possibility of drawing up (based on analytical dependencies of product parameters on technological process parameters) a mathematical description (algorithm) of each technological operation and subsequent control of the entire technological process using a computer;

adaptability (vitality) of the process, i.e. the ability to exist for a long time in conditions of the continuous emergence and development of new competitive processes and the ability to quickly rebuild equipment for the manufacture of new types of products without significant capital costs.

Most of the listed criteria are satisfied by processes that use electronic and ionic phenomena occurring in vacuum and rarefied gases, with the help of which it is possible to produce:

ion sputtering of metals, alloys, dielectrics and semiconductors in order to obtain films of various thicknesses and compositions, interconnections, capacitive structures, interlayer insulation, interlayer wiring;

ion etching of metals, alloys, semiconductors and dielectrics in order to remove individual localized areas when obtaining the IC configuration;

plasma anodizing to obtain oxide films;

polymerization of organic films in areas irradiated with electrons to obtain organic insulating layers;

cleaning and polishing the surface of substrates;

growing single crystals;

evaporation of materials (including refractory ones) and recrystallization of films;

micro-milling of films;

micro-welding and micro-soldering to connect IC leads, as well as sealing housings;

non-contact methods for monitoring IC parameters.

The commonality of the physical and chemical phenomena on which the listed processes are based shows the fundamental possibility of their subsequent integration in order to create a new technological base for high-performance automated production of integrated circuits and functional electronics devices.

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