Configuration definition. Determining the configuration of the computer by software. Determining the computer configuration
One of the most important areas of CheckIt application is computer configuration determination. CheckIt allows you to establish the firm BIOS developer, the type of processor, the amount of RAM and memory on magnetic media, as well as many other characteristics of the computer. You can also use Microsoft Diagnostics, which is included with MS-DOS and Windows operating systems, to determine the configuration of your computer.
To start determining the configuration of the computer, select the line "SysInfo" from the main menu of the CheckIt program. The "SysInfo" menu will open. The appearance of the "SysInfo" menu is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 - Menu "SysInfo"
Now select the "Configuration" line from this menu. The "Configuration Information" dialog box will appear on the screen (see Figure 3). This panel contains a list of strings that are responsible for various subsystems and characteristics of the computer.
Figure 3 - Panel "Configuration Information"
The table below describes the lines in the Configuration Information panel.
| Line | Appointment |
| "DOS Version:" | The version number of the MS-DOS operating system. This number can also be found using the VER command of the MS-DOS operating system. |
| "ROM BIOS:" | The name of the BIOS manufacturer. The most common BIOS firms AMI and AWARD. In the "Setup Program" section, we have provided descriptions of the AMI Setup-programs |
| "BIOS Date:" | BIOS release date |
| "Processor Type:" | Processor type. The different types of processors and arithmetic coprocessors are described in the "Processor" section. |
| "Math Coprocessor:" | The presence of an arithmetic coprocessor and its type |
| "Base Memory:" | The amount of standard computer RAM |
| "Available:" | Available (free RAM) |
| "Extended Memory:" | Extended memory |
| "EXPANDed Memory:" | Additional memory |
| "Video Adapter:" | Video adapter type. If you have an SVGA video adapter, it will be recognized as VGA |
| "EGA Switches:" | The location of the switches for the video adapter EGA. This characteristic of the computer can only be useful if the EGA video adapter is installed |
| "Video Address:" | Start address of video memory |
| "Video RAM Size:" | The amount of video memory. For modern video adapters, this parameter may not be defined correctly |
| "Hard Drive (s):" | Volume hard drives computer |
| "Floppy Drive (s):" | Floppy Disk Type |
| "Clock / Calendar:" | The clock type determines whether the computer contains a non-volatile clock. Usually this clock is located in the CMOS memory chip |
| "Parallel Port (s):" | Parallel ports |
| "Serial Port (s):" | Serial asynchronous ports |
| "Mouse:" | Mouse. For CheckIt to detect the mouse, the mouse driver must be loaded. For example, for a Microsoft mouse, the MOUSE.COM or MOUSE.SYS driver must be loaded |
| "Joystick (s):" | Joysticks |
Save your computer configuration information to a log file. To do this, press the key
When you have finished viewing the "Configuration Information" dialog box, press the
CheckIt allows you to view the distribution of the first megabyte of computer memory (the so-called memory card). To do this, select the "Memory Map" line from the "SysInfo" menu. The "Base Memory Map" panel will appear on the screen (see Fig. 4).
Figure 4 - Distribution of computer memory (Panel "Base Memory Map")
At the top of the screen is a graphical representation of the first megabyte of memory, and at the bottom ("Summary View") the same information is displayed in a list. The first megabyte of memory includes standard RAM (first 640 KB) and reserved memory (640 KB to 1 MB). Standard RAM is represented by the "CONVENTIONAL" rectangle, and the reserved is "RESERVED". The memory is divided into separate sections, depending on the mode of their use. Each area is represented by different symbols that can be used to determine what it is used for. In the table below we explain the meaning of these symbols.
| Symbol | Denotes |
| I | Interrupt table. This table contains addresses of handlers of 256 hardware and software interrupts |
| P | An area of \u200b\u200bRAM used by programs. It contains codes for the MS-DOS operating system, loaded drivers, and TSRs. This area also contains the CheckIt program itself. |
| A | Free area of \u200b\u200bRAM available for use by programs |
| B | Extended BIOS Data Area. This area of \u200b\u200bRAM is used by the BIOS |
| V | Video memory area. Physically, this memory is located on the video card |
| R | ROM (ROM). Permanent memory. Its content cannot be changed. It can be accessed as if it were normal RAM. It can be either BIOS ROM or adapter ROM |
| - | Unused memory area. The given address space is not used |
| E | EMS page memory unit. These blocks are usually 64KB in size. |
| H | Upper memory. CheckIt has detected the presence of a block of memory in the reserved memory area, but cannot determine how it is being used |
| Additional memory |
Using the cursor keys, you can move the cursor through the sections in the graphical memory view. The corresponding block is automatically selected from the "Summary View" list.
On the left side of the "Summary View" list, there is a symbol corresponding to this memory area, then the start and end address of this memory area, its size and a short description are displayed. For example, in Figure 5.4, the address space starting from the C000h address to the C800h address is occupied by the video adapter ROM.
For the selected memory area, you can get more detailed information by pressing the button
By examining memory allocation, you can determine which programs are using hardware interrupts (IRQs) and direct access channels (DMA). This can be useful in resolving conflicts between different expansion cards installed in the computer.
Unfortunately, you cannot fully rely on CheckIt to resolve conflicts between expansion cards. The fact is that CheckIt can determine the purpose of the IRQ line only after loading the corresponding device driver.
Select the line "Interrupts" from the "SysInfo" menu. The "Interrupts Usage" panel will appear on the screen (see Fig. 5). On the left side of the Interrupts Usage panel is a list of hardware interrupts (IRQs). Opposite each IRQ are the names of drivers, resident programs, or devices that handle the corresponding interrupts. In the right upper corner The screen displays a list of devices that do not have an IRQ. Below is a list of direct access channels - "STANDARD DMA ASSIGNMENTS".
Figure 5 - Panel "Interrupts Usage"
Figure 5 shows the use of interrupts on our computer. The IRQ0 interrupt is used by the system timer. The IRQ1 interrupt is used by the keyboard controller.
The line "" is displayed opposite the IRQ2 interrupt. This IRQ line is used in computers of the IBM PC / AT class to cascade interrupt control chips. If you have configured any expansion cards or programs to use this interrupt, it will be mapped to IRQ9.
The IRQ3 interrupt is enabled by the COM2 port of the asynchronous serial adapter, and the IRQ4 interrupt is triggered by two ports at once: COM1 and COM3. The IRQ5 interrupt is generated by the mouse. Interrupt IRQ6 by floppy drive, IRQ7 by parallel adapter, IRQ8 by timer, IRQ9 by video adapter, IRQ10 by CD-ROM device driver, IRQ11, IRQ12 and IRQ15 are not used, IRQ13 by arithmetic coprocessor and IRQ14 by hard disk drive.
The STANDARD DMA ASSIGNMENTS list contains only the standard channels used by the operating room. mS-DOS system... If you have installed additional software, for example, a sound card driver, then the direct access channels it uses will not be shown in this list.
Examples of screenshots of hardware resource diagnostics are shown below:
For help in solving a tricky problem with the operating system or devices, it is better to immediately bring the computer configuration. It can give respondents a clue to the problem, and you will get a substantive answer faster than asking for a configuration. And such a request will inevitably follow, unless you turned to the telepathic community who know how to determine your configuration by the effort of thought.
It's good if you know your configuration by heart. And if not? Then it takes a couple of minutes and a minimum of effort to collect information about the configuration of the computer. Below I will talk about how to do this using Windows OS or third-party programs that can create a report that can be published on the forum.
System Information (msinfo32)
No matter how trivial it sounds, you can collect information about your computer's hardware configuration without installing third-party programs. Windows includes a utility System information, which has the ability to export the collected data to a text file. You can run the program from the menu Start — Programs — Standard — Service or from the window Start — Execute (or fields Search in Vista) by entering msinfo32 and clicking OK.
After a few seconds, the program will collect information about the system and its hardware configuration. To export the report, select from the menu File paragraph Export, and then specify the file name and save destination. The report is ready! Since it includes various information, the file is obtained relatively big size... For publication on the forum it is better to pack it into an archive.
In Windows XP and Vista, the same result can be achieved from the command line by running the command
Msinfo32 / report "<путь к папке>\\ config.txt "
The file with the report will be created in the folder, the path to which you specify in the above command.
Third Party Programs
There are many free software to determine the hardware configuration, and it is simply impossible to describe them all. I've tested several, paying attention to the following points. The program must be free, have a small size and understandable Russian interface, be able to save a report in the form text file or web pages, and, if possible, do not require installation.
In the end, I settled on two that bribed me with the simplicity of the interface and the minimum of gestures necessary to draw up a report.
Winaudit
Along with the hardware configuration, the program collects various information about the operating system and installed applications... You can exclude secondary information from the report by clicking the button Parameters and checking the boxes as shown in the image below.
After that, you need to press the button again Audit on the toolbar for generating a report. Press the button to save the report. Save, and the program will offer you a choice of a dozen different formats. Better to save your report as a web page (HTML) or text file. When saved as a web page, the program generates three HTML files that can be zipped and attached to a forum post.
System Information for Windows (SIW)
SIW is about 2.2 MB in size, does not require installation (although only the English version is offered without an installer), has a well thought-out interface, and the clarity of the information it displays deserves a very high mark. In the multilingual version, the Russian interface language, if necessary, can be set in the window Tools -\u003e Options... We are, however, interested in creating a report, this option is in the menu Fileas shown in the picture below.
Configuration I
Configuration (from late Lat.configuratio - shaping, location)
appearance, shape, image; mutual arrangement of objects; the ratio of the constituent parts of complex objects. molecules, in stereochemistry (See Stereochemistry) characterizes the spatial arrangement of atoms or groups of atoms in an asymmetric atom (See Asymmetric atom) ,
at an asymmetrically substituted double bond (see Double bond), at a small (rigid) cycle, at the central atom in complexes. Differences between the configurations of molecules determine the existence of two types of stable stereoisomers - geometric and optical (see Isomerism). In determining K., chemical and especially physical research methods are widely used. So, using a special X-ray method, it was possible to prove, for example, the spatial arrangement of substituents at asymmetric C atoms (marked with asterisks) in the tartaric acid molecule (See Tartaric acids) . -
in dextrorotatory (I) and levorotatory (II): Tolerance of a molecule does not change when its conformation changes (See Conformation) ,
that is, when rotating around simple bonds of individual parts of the molecule relative to each other. Sometimes (for example, in physical chemistry and the chemistry of macromolecular compounds) the term "K." is understood more broadly, meaning by it the complete spatial model of the molecule. V.M. Potapov.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M .: Soviet encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
Synonyms:See what "Configuration" is in other dictionaries:
- (lat.configurare, from cum with, and figura image). 1) image, view. 2) the position of the planets in relation to each other. 3) the position of the stars relative to the known constellations. 4) the configuration of the country, the outline of its borders. Dictionary of foreign words included in ... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language
Configuration: Wiktionary has an article "configuration" Configuration (astronomy) ... Wikipedia
Cm … Synonym dictionary
configuration - and, w. configuration f., ger. Konfiguration lat. configuratio similarity. 1.asters. The relative position of the planets. Sl. 18. Any difference in the distance between the sky and the stars, from their distances between themselves, configuration, and from convergence and divergence occurs. ... ... Historical Dictionary of Russian Gallicisms
configuration - A set of parameter values \u200b\u200bthat determine the operation of the device. [Intent] configuration - configuration (ITIL Service Transition) General term used to describe a group ... ... Technical translator's guide
CONFIGURATION, configurations, women. (lat.configuratio image) (book). View, outline, image. || The mutual arrangement of some objects, the ratio of some objects. Configuration of stars in the sky. Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. ... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary
- (from late lat. configuratio shaping arrangement), appearance, outline; mutual arrangement of objects ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary
CONFIGURATION, and, wives. (specialist.). The outer outline, as well as the relative position of objects or their parts. K. products. | adj. configuration, oh, oh. Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary
Female external view, outline, outline, image. Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary. IN AND. Dahl. 1863 1866 ... Dahl's Explanatory Dictionary
- (from the late Latin coniguratio shaping, location) of the aircraft a combination of the positions of the elements of the wing, landing gear, external suspensions and other parts and assemblies of the aircraft that determine its external outlines. Depending on the stage of the flight ... ... Encyclopedia of technology
- (from lat.configuratio form, style) eng. configuration; German Konfiguration. 1. External outline, relative position to. L. objects or parts thereof. 2. In a gestalt psychologist and a sample consisting of interdependent elements, when studying to ... ... Encyclopedia of Sociology
Books
- Integration of SAP ERP "Accounting and Reporting". Configuration and Design, Naem Arif, Sheikh Mohammed Tauseef. Through this book, you will learn how to maximize the return on your SAP implementation investment by ensuring that all of the components are seamlessly integrated. It explains the features ...
In determining the relative configuration, a connection with an unknown configuration is associated with another connection, the configuration of which is already known.
When scientists receive spatial isomers, the question arises: what is their spatial structure, that is, configuration?
The approach to solving the problem of relative spatial configuration differs depending on what type of spatial isomers we are talking about - $ \\ pi $ - or $ σ $ -diastereomers, or enantiomers.
Determination of the relative configuration of π-diastereomers from the dipole moments
The set of methods for the quantitative determination of a substance and the study of its molecular structure, based on the measurement of the dielectric constant $ ε $, is usually called dielectrometry. Dielectrometry encompasses various methods of analysis, which most often come down to measuring the dielectric constant of a substance, which, as a rule, is due to the orientation of particles (molecules, ions with a dipole moment) in the electric field.
The basis for the use of the dielectrometry method were the works of the German physicist Paul Drude (1897) and the work of the Dutch physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize winner in chemistry for 1936, Peter Debye (1925-1929). Paul Drude developed the theory of electrical and thermal conductivity of metals, he was the first to discover and explain the anomalous dispersion of the dielectric constant. He also proposed methods for measuring the dielectric constant and the absorption index of liquid dielectrics in the meter and decimeter ranges of electromagnetic waves, established an empirical relationship between the structure of molecules and dielectric losses. Debye established a relationship between dielectric constant and dielectric loss with the structure of molecules. However, methods for measuring the dielectric constant began to be used in practice much later, when sufficiently simple and convenient instruments for measuring the dielectric constant appeared.
Mark Berliner (1929) was one of the first to analytically prove the promise of using dielectric measurements for the problem of determining the moisture content of solids. Later, methods were developed for the determination of the purity of organic compounds and the analysis of binary organic systems. And in 1950-1960. methods of dielectrometric titration of organic systems were first published. It is worth noting that dielectrometry methods were developed, as a rule, for the analysis of non-conductive or low-conductive organic systems, which does not exhaust all the possibilities of dielectrometry.
Many $ \\ pi $ -diastereomers are characterized by certain values \u200b\u200bof the dipole moments:
online student work exchange "\u003e
Figure 1. Cis and trans (μ \u003d 0) forms. Author24 - online exchange of student papers
In the transformation with vector composition, the oppositely oriented dipoles of the same bonds cancel each other out and the total dipole moment is zero ($ μ \u003d 0 $); in the cis form, the bond dipoles are summed up and form the total dipole moment of the molecule. So, for example, in 1,2-dihaloethylenes (shown in the figure above):
- for trans isomers, the dipole moment is zero;
- in the case of cis isomers, the dipole moment depends on the nature of the halogen atom: 2.42 ($ F $), 1.89 ($ Cl $), 1.35 ($ Br $), and 0.75D ($ І $).
For the cis isomer, the dipole moment is always greater. Determining the dipole moment makes it possible to set $ Z $ or $ E $ configurations for $ \\ pi $ -diastereomers.
Cyclization method
The cyclization method is one of the universal methods for determining the $ Z $ and $ E $ configuration for π-diastereomers.
We know that there is a certain acid - a white crystalline substance with $ t_ (pl.) $ \u003d 130 ° C, well soluble in water with the molecular formula $ C_4H_4O_4 $ and structural $ HOOC-CH \u003d CH-COOH $ (ethylene carboxylic acid) this the acid is called maleic. But at the same time there is a substance with the same molecular weight and structural formula - acid with $ t_ (pl.) $ \u003d 287 ° С, slightly soluble in water - fumaric acid. That is, we are talking about $ \\ pi $ -diastereomers (geometric cis-trans-isomers), which can have the formulas:
Figure 2.
In order to establish which acid this or that formula corresponds to, the following experiment is carried out. When heated, maleic acid splits off water and gives cyclic anhydride.
Fumaric acid does not form such anhydride. Since for the formation of cyclic anhydride the carboxyl groups must be approximated, it is logical that their arrangement in maleic acid. Fumaric acid, respectively, corresponds to a different formula with a versatile arrangement - $ COOH $ groups. The definition of the configuration in this case is solved by the cyclization method:
Figure 3.
When determining the configuration by the cyclization method, the sterically center, that is, the bond of $ sp2 $ -hybridized atoms, should not be affected.
The cyclization method was also used to determine the configuration of Komaric and coumaric acids. Coumaric acid exists only in the form of salts and esters; when free acid is released, it spontaneously cyclizes with the formation of lactone - coumarin. The ease of cyclization indicates that the coumaric acid is in the cis configuration. Coumaric acid does not cyclize and, accordingly, it has a formula with the opposite arrangement of hydrogens:
Figure 4.
coumarinic acid coumarin coumarinic acid
Determination of the configuration of π-diastereomers of diketones with double bonds in the chain
This method is also possible to determine the configuration of π-diastereomers of unsaturated diketones. For example, we can consider 1,2-dibenzoylethylene, the formula of which corresponds to two isomers, one of which melts at 111 ° C, and the other at 134 ° C. The second, more refractory isomer, is capable of forming the cyclic product 3,6-diphenylpyridazine in the reaction with hydrazine:
Figure 5.
This indicates that this isomer has a cis configuration:
Figure 6.
The first isomer, which melts at 111 ° C, must therefore have a trans configuration:
Figure 7.
Introduction.Concept configuration defined as a set of indicators of the size and shape of a building, as well as the size, type and location of those structural elements that play an important role in the perception of seismic loads (columns, wall partitions, ceilings, utility shafts, staircases, number and type of internal partitions); in addition, considering the ways of creating external wall elements (solid or with openings) through which air and light pass, apparently, is not clear enough. As noted, the configurations of buildings and structures are so diverse that their definition may seem random, but they are not. There are configuration determinants, a brief description of which will help to most correctly understand what a configuration is and the possible range of its modifications necessary to meet the requirements of earthquake-resistant structures.
The configuration of a building is influenced by three main factors: the requirements for the conditions of the construction site; requirements defining the basis of the construction program; requirements that determine the architectural appearance of the building (Fig. 4.3.1). The first requirements are imposed by the geometry of the construction site and its location; the latter are determined by the internal layout of the building in accordance with its functionality and purpose; still others are due to the architectural intention of the designer, which reflect the taste of the client and those who will work or live in the building. In addition, other factors influencing the choice of the configuration of a building and structure are considered here. The choice of configuration begins with considering the functional purpose of the building. The term "functional purpose" is sometimes contrasted with the concept of "building art". This is expressed as an antithesis: either functional or aesthetic concepts were taken as the basis for the design, but not both together. Another theory proclaimed the coexistence of art and expediency: this theory was adopted by the functionalists of the 1920s, who believed that the aesthetic perception of a building was determined by its functional purpose. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe coexistence of aesthetic and utilitarian principles has become the foundations of the architectural profession: an architectural solution provides the functionality and appearance of the designed object.
Figure: 4.3.1 Three main factors influencing building configuration
a - construction site; b - construction program; c - architectural design
Determinants.One of the methods of combining functional and aesthetic principles in the appearance of a building is that all buildings must perform four functions (four modifiers):
1. Climate modifier (it creates a certain microclimate for the people in it).
2. The modifier of the economy (by its existence it determines the given area of \u200b\u200bthe economy).
3. Behavior modifier (influences the lifestyle of people who live, work or play in it).
4. Modifier of the environment (through its appearance, it has a corresponding effect on the owners, residents and passers-by). The latter concept includes the traditional concept of the art of architecture.
Such a four-functional model seems to be the most appropriate, since it allows the coexistence of indicators of different significance in the conceptual solution of any building. An art museum has no more functionality than a suburban warehouse building; however, the attention given to each function is different. The relative attention to each of the four functions performed by the building determines the area within which the designer begins his work. Of the four functions, cost metrics are usually the decisive modifiers, and the relationship between building configuration and cost is similar to the relationship between configuration and seismic design. Simple, regular repeatable shape is the most economical and reliable configuration for earthquake-resistant structures.
The building to be rented out is a commercial building. The entire technology for the production of internal structural elements of buildings has developed on the basis of compliance with the requirements of a simple reorganization of the interior space and elements of maintenance systems (for example, these include dismountable partitions and technical ceilings). Moreover, the need for such an organization of space is directly related to the configuration, which can be expressed in an appropriate solution to the building plan with a simple and effective geometric division of the floor area. Another solution may be to preferentially include frame structures in the designed object, which minimizes the number of large-sized fixed elements (such as diaphragms or stiffened walls) in the interior of the building, which, in turn, may prevent the provision of the future occupant with that living space. that he would like to have. Such functional prerequisites, of course, have a significant impact on the type of supporting system of an earthquake-resistant structure.
Figure: 4.3.2. A building with maximum use of solar energy
As the cost of building buildings and structures increases, they become more durable, since, for reasons of economic nature, their frequent replacement is impractical. At the same time, the change in the type of lease of the premises (corresponding to the different functional uses of the premises) requires a more prompt redevelopment of the building's interior. Improvement of building codes for the design of earthquake-resistant buildings and structures has a positive effect on the duration of buildings. For example, the load-bearing structures of a hospital building are likely to have useful uses for 200 years. At the same time, it is unlikely that the elements of the general layout will be used for more than 40-50 years, and the temporary partitions and technical service system (especially in the field of medicine) will become obsolete in 10 years.
The development of air conditioning systems, which began in the 1940s, reduced the influence of climatic conditions on the architectural and planning solutions of buildings. However, now the factors of natural light and air environment are again taken into account when developing plans for buildings and structures. In this case, the most preferable changes should occur not due to the creation of large inclined solar collectors, but due to traditional methods taken as the basis for design, i.e. orientation of the building in the appropriate direction and scientific determination of the proportions of the opaque and insulated parts of the window glazing of the wall filling. There is a return to facade solutions in the form of a variety of continuous or discontinuous forms, protrusions or niches, instead of outdated monotonous facades. Some zonal requirements for the design of office buildings are based on climatic parameters of light illumination and air environment. It should be noted that the most general direction in the design of facades of buildings and structures is developing under the influence of climatic factors and configuration, towards dynamic solutions of facades and changes in traditional forms of buildings in terms of plan (Fig. 4.3.2).
One of the conditions that determine the nature of the possible movement of soil is the geology of the construction site. Its parameters can influence the choice of the building configuration based on criteria that do not always meet the seismic design criteria, and sometimes contradict them. These include characteristics similar to those that determine the geometry and location of the construction site in relation to the development conditions of the urban environment, but expressed in the form of zonal requirements regarding the recommended gaps between buildings, values \u200b\u200bof the maximum height of buildings, floor areas, etc.
As the size of construction sites decreases, geometric parameters become a determinant of the configuration of the building, which become very important compared to other criteria. In the context of suburban development, a stronger tendency is observed (even for multi-storey buildings) with regard to the construction of detached structures, which are practically not influenced by the geometric parameters of the construction site. However, the reverse situation is typical for the urban environment: the shape of the construction site, taking into account the requirements for the design of the building steps, determines the configuration of the object under construction. As the value of land plots increases, there is a general trend towards a decrease in the size of construction sites, and aspects of financial activity require the fullest possible use of the area of \u200b\u200bthis land plot, i.e. creation of a project providing the largest number of floors with a maximum area. On the other hand, the development of these trends leads to the emergence of zonal requirements, the action of which, for reasons of proportionality, is aimed at limiting the area of \u200b\u200ba construction site or the height of a building under construction, or both. Zonal norms, as a rule, are based on requirements of an aesthetic nature, such as, for example, the inexpediency of building free areas of the city or an already established urban-type formation with buildings and structures of unlimited height and the maximum area of \u200b\u200bthe ground floor plan. As a result of the implementation of new buildings in the conditions of the existing planning structure, the city is divided into triangular or trapezoidal construction sites used for building; this is why buildings end up with the shape of a flat iron (Figure 4.3.3).
| Figure: 4.3.3. Iron-shaped building in New York |
Despite the fact that the geometrical parameters of the construction site and the zonal requirements for the planning structure may to some extent influence the decision of the building plan, the detailed study of the final form is based on the requirements of the internal layout of the premises. The concept of interior layout is to organize the appropriate spaces - in size, shape, equipment or furniture and of course quality - to support activities and the movement of people and materials along established routes. All the variety and complexity of the plans of buildings and structures correspond to possible solutions for the planning structure of horizontal movements, based on the choice of one of the alternatives or their corresponding combination. First, the movement is carried out from the premises occupied by one field of activity directly to another; the second - moving from one room to another is carried out through the third room, specially designed for this. The basics of developing planning solutions of this type are well known to designers. With a horizontal planning structure, space-to-space (room-to-room) solutions are used, corridors with one- or two-way traffic.
Sometimes, in order to reduce the ratio of the area of \u200b\u200bthe premises occupied by transport corridors to the area of \u200b\u200bpremises used for carrying out useful activities, the planning solution of the building includes combined structures of two-way traffic corridors. This type of planning solution is especially typical for buildings such as schools, laboratory buildings and hospitals, where the efficiency and economy of construction work are indicators of paramount importance. The corridor-ring shape of the planning solution of this model was developed for hospital buildings; it is sometimes called a "treadmill" because the movement is organized in a circle. Most of the buildings, the design of which includes an inner core with elevator shafts and other elements of engineering and maintenance systems, also have a similar plan solution (Fig. 4.3.4). The influence of vertical structural forms on these architectural and planning concepts is carried out in two directions. A structure can define a planning concept, just as the use of load-bearing wall elements defines a cellular, repetitive layout of rooms in a hotel or apartment building. The structure can also leave free the organization of the internal space, such as in an office building intended for temporary lease (Fig. 4.3.5).
The main requirements in the design of buildings and structures for various multifunctional purposes include the requirements for ensuring the shortest and free evacuation routes; obstacles created by structural elements of corridors of mass movement are highly undesirable. If, in accordance with the change in the functional purpose of the room, it is possible to change the design position of the partitions, then the escape routes are usually saved in the original layout. Therefore, defining an evacuation route based on the layout of structural elements, which by their nature remain in the design position throughout the entire life of the building, can be considered the most reasonable approach.
The architect, in addition to organizing the space in the horizontal plane, is faced with the problem of arranging vertical dimensions, and, for any building above one floor, he must provide for vertical communications systems. The height of the building is one of the indicators that are important in the design of earthquake-resistant structures, and is determined by the number of floors and the height of each floor. The number of floors, in turn, is determined based on an analysis of various factors, such as the size of the construction site, the cost of construction, and the useful area of \u200b\u200bthe building. The height between floors is determined by operational requirements or economic considerations; minimum costsrequired for the implementation of certain types of activities are usually determined by the relevant standards. In the course of making a preliminary decision on the design of a multi-storey building, it is also necessary to determine the floor layout of the escape routes between the individual floors. The inclusion of mezzanine structures, galleries and other similar elements in the architectural planning scheme requires higher ceilings, wide spans, consoles, walkways and other details that are not always advisable, since they are a source of structural division and imbalance of the system.
Stairwells in the structure of buildings have a fixed position and can be a concentration of local rigidity and perceive a disproportionate part of the acting seismic loads. This is sometimes negative, as stairwells represent an important structural element of a building in terms of ensuring the safety of those who live or work in it; therefore, in case of fire or earthquake, they must remain intact. The staircase can create an opening or discontinuity in the structure of the floor diaphragm if not provided for placement outside the horizontal diaphragm. Generally, elevators are considered as shafts enclosed by wall partitions, but sometimes the design requirements for elevators provide for an opening in the floor with a corresponding break in the horizontal diaphragm. Wall partitions enclosing a shaft may form part of the vertical or transverse structure of the building; however, this may not be the case if the elevator car has a suspension at the top and only guide rails are required for movement. Thus, within the range of design constraints, there is ample opportunity making a variety of decisions. Decision making is mainly influenced by aesthetic and stylistic factors. As an example of the influence of the style, we can cite the well-known formal trend, widespread in many countries of the world, which is characterized by the creation of simple rectilinear forms of multi-storey buildings, mainly administrative. This trend was observed from 1950 to 1965. The origins of this trend can be traced back to the period in the development of architecture, which was strongly influenced by major architectural authorities; it is due to the influence of form, rather than economic, climatic or design factors, and in fact does not take into account the climatic features that require the creation of different facades depending on the level of insolation.
The straightness of the shape of the building represents the concept of perceiving the building as a simple geometric element, within which functional elements are included (but not expressed in an architectural sense). The opposite direction in architecture calls to perceive the building as a concentration of elements, each of which has its own formal reflection. The latter direction is a strong impetus for many designers and the rectangular shape of the building (box) is not popular now. However, many buildings include elements designed in accordance with both concepts; however, buildings and structures, the aesthetic perception of which is especially important, have architectural solutions without any compromise.
Development of the configuration of office buildings in the United States.The administrative building as a type appeared in the United States at the beginning of the 19th century. The architectural design of the plans for these buildings went through four stages. The description in this chapter is intentionally oversimplified, as the categorization is based only on those aspects that have the greatest impact on the spatial shape of the building (Figure 4.3.6).
The first stage in the development of the architectural form of administrative buildings continued until the early 1940s. During this period, which is characterized by an increase in the volume of management work, the configuration of buildings was largely determined by the parameters of natural ventilation and, most importantly, the need for daylight. At that time, forced ventilation already existed, but artificial cooling of premises was not yet there; air inflow came through openable windows, and fans were additionally turned on during the hot summer period. Electric lighting in administrative institutions appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, incandescent lamps were uneconomical and emitted a very large amount of heat. By 1940, the first fluorescent lamps appeared, but until that time, natural daylight was the main source of light in rooms. These factors imposed certain restrictions on the width of the building in the plan, and for the internal planning structure of the premises, a scheme of transport corridors with traffic in both directions was generally adopted. Since administrative buildings were built, as a rule, in areas of existing urban development, then even then the impact of the increasing cost of land was quite significant. The appearance of lifting elevators made it possible to significantly increase the number of storeys in buildings, but they still remained narrow in plan. To create certain light and air modes in small urban areas, the planning solutions of buildings included numerous narrow buildings (wings) or light wells, which could turn into courtyards in relatively large areas. This type of layout has been characteristic of administrative buildings for a long time, and the form, which is traditional for public and educational buildings, has been improved in Europe to an extremely high functional and aesthetic level. In cities like New York, overcrowding has caused the need to create a so-called secondary configuration element, which has become a characteristic detail of the architectural and planning solutions of many buildings: these are ledges, the main provisions of the construction of which are included in building codes in order to maintain the required illumination and air conditions for streets and between adjacent buildings.
The second stage in the development of forms is the result of the interaction of economic, technological and aesthetic factors. The economic factor determines the desire for the most profitable use of the territory of the building site. As a result of this decision, the narrow traditional wings of the buildings, which limited the area of \u200b\u200bthe usable building site and were characterized by a large number of interior and exterior corners, became irrational. Along with this, the requirements of customers for the construction of spacious premises that could correspond to the new organization of workplaces of administrative institutions have intensified. Technological factors that made it possible to build buildings and structures with large internal spaces are the creation of efficient air conditioning systems and the creation of efficient fluorescent lamps, which, at a fairly reasonable cost, could illuminate workplaces far from window openings. In addition, mention should be made of the impact of the booming energy industry at that time. The importance of aesthetic factors is still a controversial issue. Modern trends in architecture and the influences exerted by great European masters such as Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier have enhanced the Gothic value of simplicity in building facades and introduced simple cubic outlines of elements into architectural and planning solutions. By the 1940s. Many talented architects and architects believed that the straightforwardness of forms and the absence of any architectural decorations represent the only acceptable style that meets the spirit of the times, and after the Second World War, buildings of this type began to appear in all corners of the globe.
In the early 1950s. in New York, the United Nations Building and the Lever Brothers Building were built. The shape of these buildings met the new requirements for the premises of administrative buildings, and was subsequently repeated in almost every major city in the world.
Figure: 4.3.6. Four stages in the development of office building design
a - Alexander Building, San Francisco, 1920; b - the building of the Guaranti Building Buffalo, 1895; c - Alcoa Building, San Francisco, 1968; d - Pennizoil Place building, Houston, 1976; d - office building, Sacramento, 1979
It is important to note that at that time such a solution corresponded to new aesthetic ideas, new engineering and economic needs of the cities being built, and, moreover, was distinguished by simplicity of reproducibility. The practical implementation of this configuration has inadvertently influenced the development of seismic design. The simple cubic shape of the building led to the need to exclude traditional stepped forms of multi-storey buildings from the practice of construction, which in turn contributed to the revision of the norms of earthquake construction in relation to the design of benches. As a result, the norms adopted an open area at the level of the lower floor in the absence of architectural ledges and the height of the building, limited only by the needs of the customer. The open area, often created by placing the building's box on columns, often having a glazed lobby at the ground floor level, was itself an expression of one of the dogmas of the modern trend in architecture proposed by Le Corbusier. Subsequently, such a constructive decision was made in the design of earthquake-resistant buildings and structures, and was expressed in the creation of flexible first floors, when the main structure did not reach the level of the foundation, or in some other way, the shear stiffness of the bearing elements at the level of the second floor was ensured. At the same time, the exclusion of architectural ledges from the structure of buildings also had a positive result in terms of earthquake-resistant design. In the late 1940s. a number of regulations concerning earthquake-resistant construction were changed (it was allowed to use solid glazing instead of filling between columns in the form of brickwork or reinforced concrete partitions). Curtain wall panels began to be used, which, in combination with flexible frame structures, caused serious problems in areas of seismic activity due to the possibility of destruction of non-bearing elements in buildings of medium and high storey.
The beginning of the third stage of design of office buildings can be attributed to the mid-1960s, and its elements are present in modern architecture. The desire to create a clean geometric shape was further developed. Most notable is the use of inclined planes at an angle of up to 45 ° (fig. 4.3.7), the use of a prismatic shape with reflective glass, which improves the thermal regime of the building. These forms reached a higher degree of geometric abstraction in the 1950s and 1960s. Today, the design of office buildings is characterized by the modification of forms to meet the increased requirements for energy savings, based on the recognition of the fact that previously constructed buildings do not meet this requirement. This is especially true for room illumination modes: the cost of lighting most indoor spaces is relatively high, but, in addition, additional costs are required for air conditioning systems. Along with these shortcomings of a technological and economic nature, the very type of administrative building and the design of its interiors in the form of spacious rooms with soft, but not always convenient lighting, causes dissatisfaction.
Figure: 4.3.7. Prismatic buildings clad in reflective glass
The fourth stage is characterized by a return to fragmentary forms of a smaller scale, which were used in the initial and developmental stages. Again, there are buildings that are narrow in plan, more consistent with the use of natural light in the premises, patios, light wells, skylights. Multi-storey massive buildings are being transformed into smaller and more human-scale houses. Currently, large-scale prismatic forms are being created only for the most prestigious administrative institutions run by large corporations, and an energy-efficient urban environment of a non-monumental, human scale is on the way to implementation.
